What are the fundamental principles of signal transduction that can be applied across various signalling pathways?

Explain how different drugs affect actin filament using suitable examples.

Discuss different forms of lysosomes in a cell.

Explain the various steps involved in the signal transduction through G-protein coupled receptors.

Compare non-viral vs. viral vectors in gene therapy, their advantages/disadvantages, and applications in treating cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, cancer, and dermatological disorders.

Describe steps in cloning eukaryotic insulin genes in prokaryotes for recombinant human insulin production using synthetic A/B chains and fusion proteins.

Compare direct, indirect, sandwich, and competitive ELISA techniques, their principles, advantages, and applications.

Explain artificial selection using narrow-sense heritability, selection differential/response to selection, QTL mapping, and heritability estimates for human intelligence/personality traits.

Explain Drosophila sex determination by Genic Balance Theory (X/A ratio), Calvin Bridges' experiments, and molecular pathway involving sxl, tra, tra-2, and dsx genes.

Describe general/specific transcription factors, their roles in eukaryotic transcription initiation, DNA-binding motifs and cis-regulatory elements.

Describe eukaryotic gene structure and evolutionary role of introns in exon shuffling.

Explain positive and negative control mechanisms in prokaryotic gene expression, distinguishing inducible/repressible systems with diagrams of activator/repressor binding to RPBS and effector molecule effects.

Compare spontaneous vs. induced mutations, explaining DNA replication errors, tautomeric shifts, depurination, UV-induced thymine dimers, and 5BU base analog effects.

Explain human gene mapping by linkage analysis in pedigrees using nail-patella syndrome and ABO blood group example, including recombination frequency calculation.

Briefly describe different gene types in eukaryotes with examples, highlighting the functional significance.

Describe the phenomenon of duplicate genes with cumulative effect with suitable examples. How does this type of gene interaction modify the expected Mendelian ratio, and what phenotypic ratio is observed in the F_₂ generation of such crosses?

Explain Mendel's Law of Segregation and Independent Assortment with examples, accounting for 3:1 and 9:3:3:1 F₂ ratios in monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.

Why are villi present in the small intestine and not in the stomach?

What is the significance of bile juice in the process of digestion?

What are the five major respiratory conditions?