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The Cārvāka school, also known as Lokāyata, represents a materialist and skeptical strand of Indian philosophy. It holds that perception (*pratyakṣa*) is the only valid means (*pramāṇa*) of knowledge and rejects other means such as inference (*anumāna*), testimony (*śabda*), comparison (*upamāna*), and postulation (*arthāpatti*). Their primary objection centers on inference, which plays a crucial role in other orthodox schools such as Nyāya, Vedānta, and Sāṅkhya. Cārvākas argue that inference is not a reliable or independent source of knowledge. The fundamental objection of the Cārvākas is based on the fallibility of inference. According to them, inference presupposes a universal relation (*vyāpti*) between the middle term (*hetu*) and the major term (*sādhya*). For instance, when smoke is seen on a hill, the inference that there is fire is based ___ _______ ________ ______ _________ ________ ______ _________.
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