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Amino acid substitutions arise from changes in the nucleotide sequence of a gene and can influence protein structure and function in diverse ways depending on the nature and position of the substituted residue. Proteins rely on precise amino acid sequences to fold into specific three-dimensional conformations stabilized by hydrogen bonds, ionic interactions, hydrophobic forces, and disulfide bridges. Even a single substitution can disrupt these interactions and alter protein ___ _________ ___ ________ ___ __________ ____ _____ __________ ____ ________.
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