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Ancient, medieval, and colonial cities in India emerged under different historical conditions and reflected distinct socio-economic and political structures. Ujjain, Shahjahanabad, and Kolkata represent three important stages in the evolution of Indian urbanism. A comparative sociological analysis of these cities reveals changes in urban organization, economic activities, political authority, social stratification, and cultural life. Ujjain, one of the oldest cities of India, was an important urban centre during the ancient period, particularly under the Mauryas and Guptas. Located on major trade routes connecting northern and southern India, it flourished as a commercial, religious, and cultural centre. The economy was based on agriculture, handicrafts, trade, and guild-based production. Merchant guilds played a significant role in regulating commerce and supporting _____ ___ ___ _____ _________.
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