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Cardiac output (CO) is a fundamental parameter in comparative animal physiology that represents the volume of blood pumped by the heart per unit time, usually expressed in liters per minute. It is a critical indicator of the circulatory system's efficiency and is determined by two main factors: heart rate (HR), which is the number of heartbeats per minute, and stroke volume (SV), which is the amount of _______ __________ _______ ___ _____ ____.
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