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The Paris Agreement on climate change, adopted in December 2015 at the 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), marked a historic moment in global environmental diplomacy. It is regarded as the first universal, legally binding climate accord that brought together nearly every nation in a collective effort to combat climate change and adapt to its impacts. Unlike earlier frameworks such as the Kyoto Protocol, which imposed obligations only on developed nations, the Paris Agreement established a common platform of responsibility and action that applied to both developed and developing countries. Its salient features lie in its inclusivity, ambition, flexibility, and mechanisms for long-term climate governance. One of the most significant features of the Paris Agreement is its global goal of limiting the increase in average global temperatures to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, while also pursuing efforts to limit the rise to 1.5°C. This ambitious target reflects growing scientific consensus about the dangerous consequences of surpassing these thresholds. The inclusion of the 1.5°C aspiration was the result of strong advocacy by vulnerable nations such as small island developing states, who face existential risks from sea-level rise and extreme weather events. This goal is not merely symbolic; it represents a commitment to align global policies, technological innovations, and financial resources with the scientific reality of climate change. A core mechanism of the Paris Agreement is the system of nationally determined contributions (NDCs). Each country is required to prepare, communicate, and maintain successive climate action plans that articulate how it intends to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climate change. Unlike top-down legally binding emission reduction targets of earlier treaties, NDCs reflect a bottom-up approach, granting flexibility for each country to set goals consistent with its national circumstances, capacities, and development priorities. This flexibility encourages broader participation, but the voluntary nature also raises questions about adequacy and accountability. Nevertheless, the agreement establishes that countries must update their NDCs every five years, with each successive plan expected ______ _____ _________ __________ ______ _________ __________ _____ ______ _________ _____.
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