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The expansion of agriculture in South India has been a long historical process, influenced by geography, ecology, state policies, religious institutions, and technological innovations. It played a crucial role in shaping the socio-political and economic structures of South Indian society. The development of agriculture in this region cannot be seen as a linear progression but rather as a complex, region-specific evolution that responded to both environmental constraints and historical contingencies. South India is characterized by varied ecological zones including the Western and Eastern Ghats, river valleys such as the Kaveri and Tungabhadra, the Deccan plateau, and coastal plains. These zones have provided both opportunities and challenges for agricultural expansion. While the river valleys offered fertile soil and perennial water sources conducive for settled agriculture, the semi-arid Deccan plateau required innovations in irrigation and cropping practices to support agricultural communities. The earliest evidence of agricultural expansion in South India dates back to the Neolithic period (around 3000–1000 BCE), particularly in regions such as Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Archaeological sites like Brahmagiri, Hallur, and Piklihal reveal the domestication of crops such as millet, horse gram, and pulses, along with cattle herding. These early communities practiced a mixed economy that gradually laid the foundation for permanent settlements and more intensive agriculture. During the Iron Age (1000 BCE to 300 BCE), the use of iron tools revolutionized agricultural practices. The introduction of iron ploughshares enabled farmers to clear forested lands and cultivate harder soils, thus expanding agricultural frontiers beyond river valleys. This period witnessed the emergence of complex chiefdoms and early state formations which began to play a role in regulating and supporting agriculture through control over land and labor. The Sangam Age (circa 300 BCE to 300 ____ __________ ______ ________ _____ _______.
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