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Urban ecosystem refers to the dynamic and complex system that emerges when ecological principles are applied to cities and towns. Unlike natural ecosystems that primarily function without direct human intervention, urban ecosystems are hybrid systems shaped by both natural elements and human activities. They consist of living organisms such as humans, plants, animals, and microorganisms, along with non-living elements like air, water, soil, and constructed infrastructure. In this system, interactions occur between biological, physical, social, and economic factors, making urban ecosystems distinct in their structure and functioning. Urban ecosystems are not static; they evolve continuously with urbanization, technological advancement, and changing social dynamics. They are central to the quality of life of urban residents because they directly influence air quality, water availability, climate regulation, waste management, and overall environmental health. In the context of ecology and environment, the concept of an urban ecosystem emphasizes the need to view cities not just as centers of economic and social activity but as ecological units dependent on the interaction of natural and human-made systems. For instance, urban forests, wetlands, rivers, lakes, gardens, and parks provide ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, flood control, and biodiversity conservation. At the same time, anthropogenic systems such as transportation networks, industrial establishments, and residential complexes affect ecological balance by contributing to pollution, waste generation, and resource consumption. Thus, the urban ecosystem is essentially ________ _________ _________ ________ ______ __________ ______ ________ _______ _________ ___ ___.
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