Name some religious sects/cults in the Roman world before the dominance of Christianity. Why was the Roman world called as a ‘civilization of borrowings’?

Rome’ emerged as a city in Italy around 800 BCE and became the capital of a small polity that for the next five centuries received little attention from its powerful neighbors: the Greek city-states (some of which planted colonists in the Italian peninsula itself), the vast Persian empire, and various tribal kingdoms along the northern, southern and western edges of the Mediterranean Sea. Eight centuries later ‘Rome’ meant not only a great city but an empire of about sixty million people (almost the same as the population of the Chinese Central Kingdom at the time) that extended into west Asia (the ‘Near East’), northern Africa and a large portion of the continent today called Europe. While we can trace a Roman cultural pattern – some historians and other scholars use the term Romanity – it is more difficult to generalize about the many forms of religion practiced in the Roman world. There were several ‘major’ religions, including pantheism (worship of multiple, ‘all around’gods and goddesses) in the Greek pattern, Judaism, Manichaeism, ‘mystery religions’, and possibly hundreds of minor cults and worship patterns. And there was of course Christianity, which emerged during the first century CE as a sect in Roman Judea – partly building on the centuries-old Jewish faith tradition and partly rebelling against it – to become the state religion of the whole Roman empire by the late fourth century CE. The Roman Christian leaders who adopted the title Pope (from the Latin word papa: father), including Pope Leo I in the fifth century CE, aspired to lead a world-wide community of Christian worshippers, even though there were by that time several types or branches of Christianity in Asia and Africa whose leaders did not always acknowledge the supremacy of the Pope in the city of Rome. A reasonable estimate of the world’s Christians around the year 400 CE puts as many as half of them beyond the borders of the Roman empire, as far away as Persia (the Persian Sasanian empire1 challenged Roman rule over what are now Syria, Jordan and Turkey), Arabia, Armenia, Georgia, central Asia, north Africa, Ethiopia and perhaps India. Nevertheless, it is significant that the popes in the city of Rome since the time of Leo I have taken the title Supreme ASSIGNMENT SOLUTION GUIDE (2020-21) Pontiff (in Latin, pontifex maximus: chief priest of the state religion), which was a title and office held by Roman rulers for centuries before the emergence of Christianity. To the people of the Italian peninsula recognized as ancestors of the Romans, the Unit ________ ___ ___ _____ _____ ______ __________.
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