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Epidemics and pandemics are spatial–temporal phenomena whose trends and patterns are closely linked with human mobility, settlement structure, environmental change and socio-economic processes. Historically, epidemics were often localized and spread slowly, constrained by limited transportation networks and low population mobility. In the contemporary period, however, the scale, speed and spatial reach of infectious diseases have increased significantly, transforming many epidemics into global pandemics. This change is strongly associated with the processes of globalization. One major trend observed in epidemics is the shift from rural, region-specific outbreaks to urban-centered and transnational spread. Rapid urbanization has resulted in high population densities, informal settlements and inadequate sanitation in many parts of the world, creating favourable conditions for the transmission of communicable diseases such as cholera, tuberculosis ______ ____ _______ ___ ____ ____ __________ ______ ___ ____.
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