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The early historic period of Tamilaham, generally covering the Sangam Age from about the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D., witnessed the emergence of distinctive political institutions that differed in many respects from the centralized monarchies of northern India. Tamilaham included the territories of present-day Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. Literary sources such as the Sangam texts, especially the *Purananuru*, *Akananuru*, *Pattinappalai*, and *Maduraikkanji*, along with epigraphic evidence like the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions and archaeological discoveries at sites such as Arikamedu, Kodumanal, Karur, and Alagankulam, provide valuable information regarding the political organization and nature of the state during this period. The political structure of early Tamilaham was characterized by the presence of three major ruling dynasties known as the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas, collectively referred to as the Muvendar or the "Three Crowned Kings." Alongside these powerful rulers existed numerous minor chiefs known as Velirs, who governed smaller territories and often acknowledged the supremacy of the larger kingdoms while retaining considerable autonomy. Thus, the political system was not completely centralized but represented a network of regional powers with varying degrees of authority. The state in Tamilaham was fundamentally monarchical in nature. Kings occupied the highest political position and exercised executive, military, judicial, and administrative powers. Succession was generally hereditary, although disputes among royal family members occasionally occurred. The king was regarded as the protector of the people, the defender of territory, and the patron of poets, scholars, and religious institutions. His authority rested not only on military strength but also on personal qualities such as generosity, courage, and justice. Sangam literature frequently praises rulers for their valor in battle and their liberal distribution of wealth among subjects and bards. Despite the prominence of kings, the state was relatively less bureaucratic than the Mauryan Empire. There is little evidence of a highly organized administrative machinery with numerous officials. Governance largely depended upon personal loyalty, kinship ties, local ___ ______ _______ _______ _________ ___ ___ _______.
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