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Urban areas across the globe are experiencing higher temperatures than their rural surroundings, a phenomenon widely known as the urban heat island effect. This temperature disparity primarily results from rapid urbanization, land-use changes, and human-induced heat emissions. Cities replace natural landscapes with concrete, asphalt, and steel, all of which have high thermal mass and low albedo. Instead of reflecting sunlight, these surfaces absorb and store heat during the day and re-radiate it at night, preventing nocturnal cooling. In addition, densely packed buildings obstruct wind circulation, trapping warm air within the urban canopy layer. Anthropogenic heat from vehicles, industries, power plants, and residential cooling systems directly contributes to warming, creating pockets of intensified heat. Lack of vegetation further exacerbates the effect, as plants normally regulate temperatures through shading and evapotranspiration, processes largely absent in concrete-dominated landscapes. Moreover, urban geometry—narrow streets and tall buildings—creates a “canyon effect” that confines radiation and reduces heat dissipation. Air pollution and greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and black carbon absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, amplifying atmospheric heating. As global climate change raises baseline temperatures, heat islands intensify, turning cities into hotspots of thermal stress. The mechanism of the urban heat island effect is both surface-based and atmospheric. During daylight hours, urban surfaces such as pavements and rooftops __________ ____ _________ ______ _____ ______.
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