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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) is a progressive, irreversible condition characterized by airflow limitation that is not fully reversible. It includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis. COPD is primarily caused by long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, most commonly from cigarette smoke, environmental pollutants, or occupational exposures. Pathophysiology of COPD The pathophysiology of COPD involves chronic inflammation of the airways, lung parenchyma, and pulmonary blood vessels. In chronic bronchitis, there is hyperplasia of the mucus-secreting glands, resulting in excessive mucus production, airway obstruction, and persistent cough. Emphysema, on the other hand, involves destruction of the alveolar walls leading to loss of elastic recoil, reduced surface area for gas exchange, and air trapping. Airflow limitation is due to a combination of small airway disease (obstructive bronchiolitis) and parenchymal destruction (emphysema). The chronic inflammation leads to narrowing of the airways, increased mucus production, and structural changes such as fibrosis. Alveolar wall destruction reduces the surface area available for gas _______ __________ ________ _____ ______ __________ ____ _____ ______ ________ __________ __________.
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