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Upper gastrointestinal (UGI) bleeding refers to bleeding arising from the gastrointestinal tract proximal to the ligament of Treitz, mainly from the oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum. It is a potentially life-threatening critical-care condition that may present with haematemesis, coffee-ground vomiting, or melena. The causes can be broadly classified into oesophageal, gastric, duodenal, vascular, drug-related, and systemic causes. Peptic ulcer disease is one of the most common causes of upper gastrointestinal bleeding. Gastric and duodenal ulcers can erode blood vessels in the gastrointestinal wall and produce significant haemorrhage. The major risk factors are *Helicobacter pylori* infection, prolonged use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroid use in combination with other risk factors, smoking, and severe physiological stress. In critically ill patients, stress-related mucosal disease may cause acute _______ _____ ___ ________ ____.
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