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Citizenship is generally understood as the legal and political status through which individuals enjoy rights, perform duties, and participate in the public life of a state. In principle, citizenship is based on equality, and modern democratic constitutions formally recognize equal rights for women and men. However, from the perspective of Gender and Power, citizenship cannot be understood only through formal legal provisions. It must also be examined in relation to social structures, cultural norms, economic inequalities, family relations, and political institutions. Historically, women have been discriminated against in the exercise of citizenship rights, even when they were legally recognized as citizens. The central issue is therefore the difference between formal citizenship and substantive citizenship. Historically, citizenship was closely associated with the public sphere, while women were largely confined to the private sphere of family and household. In many societies, the ideal citizen was imagined as an autonomous male individual who participated in political decision-making, owned property, worked in the public sphere, and performed military or civic duties. Women were frequently represented as dependents of fathers or husbands rather than as independent political subjects. This distinction between the public and private spheres played a major role in excluding women from citizenship. One of the clearest forms of discrimination was the denial of voting rights. For a long period, women in many countries were not permitted to vote _________ ______ __________ ________ ___ ____ _________ ______.
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