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Literacy is a fundamental instrument for social transformation, economic development, and democratic participation. In India, successive governments have launched several national initiatives to improve literacy rates, reduce educational inequalities, and ensure universal access to education. These initiatives have particularly focused on women, disadvantaged communities, rural populations, and adult learners, recognizing that literacy is essential for empowerment and inclusive development. The National Literacy Mission (NLM), launched in 1988, marked a significant milestone in India's literacy movement. Its primary objective was to impart functional literacy to adults in the age group of 15–35 years. The mission adopted a participatory approach by involving voluntary organizations, local communities, educational institutions, and trained volunteers. It emphasized reading, writing, numeracy, and awareness of social issues such as health, sanitation, gender equality, and civic ________ _______ __________ ________ ________ __________ _________.
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