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The intellectual foundations for the emergence of a science of society are rooted in Enlightenment thought, scientific rationalism, and philosophical humanism. The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed the development of rational and empirical approaches to understanding human behaviour, institutions, and societies. Thinkers such as Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim played a crucial role in laying the theoretical basis for sociology and social anthropology. Comte proposed a “positive science” of society, emphasizing observation, classification, and comparison. Durkheim developed the idea of social facts and insisted on studying society objectively. Marx focused on material conditions and class relations, while Spencer applied evolutionary theory to social development. These scholars helped shape the idea that human society could be studied systematically, like the natural sciences. The intellectual climate of the 19th century was influenced by ____ _______ ___ __________ ____ __________.
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