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The measurement of pH is one of the most common analytical determinations in chemistry, biology, environmental science, and industry, but its accuracy is affected by several limiting factors. pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity, not merely its concentration, and this distinction highlights the complexity involved in its precise determination. The most widely used method is through the glass electrode in combination with a reference electrode, but even this method, though convenient, is subject to various limitations arising from instrumental, chemical, and environmental factors. One of the most significant factors that limit the accuracy of pH measurements is the distinction between hydrogen ion activity and concentration. The pH scale is fundamentally based on activities, but experimental measurement often approximates concentration. In real solutions, especially at higher ionic strengths, activity coefficients deviate from unity, leading to discrepancies between the __________ ____ _________ ____ _________ ____.
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