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Genetic engineering, also referred to as recombinant DNA technology, has revolutionized biology by enabling direct manipulation of an organism’s genome. One of its most significant applications is in medicine. The production of therapeutic proteins such as insulin, growth hormones, clotting factors, and monoclonal antibodies has become more efficient and cost-effective through genetically modified microorganisms. Insulin, for example, is now produced by inserting the human insulin gene into *Escherichia coli*, eliminating dependence on animal sources. Gene therapy represents another medical application, where defective genes in patients are replaced or repaired __________ ______ __________ __________ ________.
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