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Congenital heart diseases (CHDs) are structural or functional abnormalities of the heart present at birth. They result from improper development of the heart or major blood vessels during embryogenesis, often influenced by genetic and environmental factors. CHDs represent a significant area of study in genetics and evolutionary biology because they illustrate how mutations, gene regulation, and developmental pathways contribute to phenotypic ______ __________ ______ ____ __________.
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