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In Indian philosophy, liberation or *moksha* is a central theme representing the ultimate goal of human life — freedom from the cycle of birth and death (*samsara*). Jainism and Buddhism, two of the major heterodox systems that emerged around the 6th century BCE, offer distinct but comparable perspectives on liberation. While both systems reject the authority of the Vedas and the concept of a creator God, they share an emphasis on ethical conduct, mental discipline, and the cessation of desires as means to attain liberation. However, their metaphysical assumptions and soteriological paths differ significantly. In Jainism, liberation (*moksha* or *kevala jnana*) is conceived as the complete and eternal separation of the soul (*jiva*) from karmic matter. Jain metaphysics is fundamentally dualistic, distinguishing between conscious substances (*jiva*) and non-conscious substances (*ajiva*). The soul, in its pure state, is characterized by infinite knowledge, perception, bliss, and energy. However, due to karmic bondage—caused by passions and actions—it is trapped in the cycle of *samsara*. The goal of spiritual practice in Jainism is to eliminate all karmic particles from the soul so that it can ascend ________ ______ _____ ____ ____ ________ _______ ____ ________.
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