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The Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari Settlement were two major land revenue systems introduced by the British in India during the colonial period. They reflect the evolution of British agrarian policies in India from the late 18th to the mid-19th century. Both systems aimed at streamlining land revenue collection, increasing state income, and ensuring administrative control. However, their approaches, assumptions, mechanisms, and outcomes varied significantly, shaped by regional conditions, colonial ideologies, and administrative experiments. The Permanent Settlement was introduced in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, based on the recommendations of Charles Grant and other East India Company officials. It was designed to stabilize and maximize land revenue by recognizing the zamindars (landlords) as the owners of the land. The zamindars were required to pay a fixed annual revenue to the British government, which was permanent in nature and not subject to revision, regardless of changes in agricultural productivity or prices. In return, they were granted hereditary rights over the land and given full authority to collect rent from the peasants (ryots). The Ryotwari Settlement, on the other hand, was introduced in Madras and later in Bombay and parts of central India by British administrators such as Thomas Munro and Alexander Read, beginning around 1820. It was a direct settlement between the government and the individual cultivator (ryot), bypassing intermediaries like zamindars. Under this system, each cultivator was recognized as the proprietor of the land they tilled, and they were directly responsible for paying land revenue to the state. Unlike the Permanent Settlement, the Ryotwari system allowed for periodic revision of land revenue based on reassessment of land quality, productivity, and other factors. The ideological underpinnings of the two systems also differed. The Permanent Settlement reflected British efforts to recreate an aristocracy in India akin to the landed gentry in _________ _____ _____ ___ ______ _______.
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