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Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) and lithium-ion battery storage systems (Li-ion) are two prominent energy storage technologies used to support grid stability, enhance renewable energy integration, and provide peak load management. While both technologies serve similar functions, they differ significantly in terms of capital costs, operational costs, and cost drivers. Capital costs for pumped-storage hydroelectricity are generally high due to the scale and complexity of the infrastructure required. PSH systems demand substantial civil engineering work, including the construction of reservoirs, dams, tunnels, and powerhouses. The capital cost typically _____ ____ _________ __________ _______ _______ __________.
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