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Redox flow batteries (RFBs) are a class of electrochemical energy storage systems that store energy in liquid electrolytes contained in external tanks. Unlike conventional batteries where energy is stored within solid electrodes, RFBs utilize the redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions of electroactive species dissolved in the liquid electrolyte. These electrolytes are pumped through an electrochemical cell where energy conversion takes place during charge and discharge cycles. The most studied and commercially explored RFB is the vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB), in which vanadium ions in different oxidation states act as both the positive and negative electrolytes. The core components of a redox flow battery include two separate electrolyte tanks, a cell stack, and a membrane or separator. During operation, the electrolytes are pumped into the cell stack, where they _____ _______ ___ __________ ___ _________ ___ _______ _____ _______ _________ ________.
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