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The rural society of peninsular India developed through a complex interaction of agriculture, pastoralism, craft production, trade, political authority and caste-based social relations. The term “peninsular India” broadly refers to the Deccan and the southern regions comprising present-day Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Its rural social structure evolved over a long period and was shaped by ecological diversity, irrigation systems, expansion of cultivation, temple institutions, political kingdoms and local communities. Unlike a uniform village society, peninsular India contained considerable regional variations in patterns of landholding, caste relations, labour and political organisation. Agriculture was the principal foundation of rural society. The availability of fertile river valleys, tanks, wells and seasonal rainfall determined agricultural practices. The major river systems such as the Krishna, Godavari, Tungabhadra, Kaveri and Vaigai supported settled agriculture and encouraged the development of dense rural settlements. In many areas, especially Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka and Andhra, irrigation tanks played a crucial role. The construction and maintenance of tanks required collective labour and strengthened the importance of village institutions and local elites. Wet-rice cultivation was particularly important in the river valleys and coastal areas, while dry cultivation of millets, pulses, cotton and oilseeds was widespread in the Deccan. The expansion of agriculture was closely connected with the process of state formation. From the early historic period onwards, rulers attempted to bring new lands under cultivation and increase agricultural revenue. The establishment of settlements, grants of land and the development of irrigation were important instruments in this process. In South India, _____ _______ ________ ____ ___ ____ ____ ____ ____ __________ _____ __________.
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