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The term “early medieval society” refers to the social formations that developed in the Indian subcontinent roughly between the seventh and the thirteenth centuries, although the exact chronology varied from region to region. This period witnessed significant changes in political institutions, economic relations, religious practices, patterns of landholding, and social organisation. Historians no longer regard the early medieval period simply as a phase of decline between the ancient and medieval worlds. Instead, it is understood as a period of transition and regional transformation in which new social structures emerged through the interaction of older institutions and changing economic and political conditions. One of the most important features of early medieval Indian society was the increasing importance of land as a source of political power and economic resources. Rulers frequently granted land to Brahmanas, religious institutions, officials, and other beneficiaries. Such grants could involve tax exemptions and rights over the produce and resources of the donated land. The expansion of these land grants contributed to the emergence of new relationships between rulers, local elites, cultivators, and dependent groups. In several regions, beneficiaries of land grants acquired considerable economic and social influence. This process helped create locally powerful landed groups and strengthened the role of intermediaries in rural society. The expansion of agriculture was another significant feature of early medieval society. Agricultural settlements spread into forested and previously less cultivated areas, particularly in regions such as Bengal, Odisha, parts of central India, and the Deccan. The process often involved the clearing of forests, establishment of villages, construction of irrigation facilities, and incorporation of local communities into agrarian society. Rulers and religious institutions sometimes encouraged this expansion because increased agricultural production generated revenue and strengthened political authority. Consequently, the growth of agriculture was closely connected with the formation of new social and political ____ _______ _________ _________ ______.
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