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Radiation measurement is a fundamental aspect of environmental chemistry, as it allows scientists to monitor radioactive contamination, study environmental processes, and assess potential health risks. Various instruments have been developed to detect and quantify different types of radiation, including alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and neutrons. Among these, the Geiger-Müller (GM) counter, scintillation detectors, ionization chambers, and semiconductor detectors are widely used. The GM counter operates on the principle of gas ionization, where incoming radiation ionizes the gas inside the tube, creating an electrical pulse that is counted and displayed. This instrument is highly sensitive and suitable for detecting beta and gamma radiation, though it lacks energy resolution and cannot distinguish between radiation types effectively. Scintillation detectors, on the other hand, use scintillating materials like sodium iodide doped with thallium, which emit light when exposed to radiation. This ________ _________ ___ _____ ___ _____ _____ ______ ___.
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