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After independence, India faced the dual challenge of rural poverty and unemployment, particularly in agrarian regions where seasonal fluctuations, small landholdings, and lack of non-farm opportunities created persistent livelihood insecurity. To tackle this, successive governments introduced a series of wage employment programmes aimed at providing immediate income support through manual work, while simultaneously creating durable community assets that would promote long-term rural development. These programmes evolved over decades, reflecting shifts in planning strategies, political priorities, and lessons learned from earlier schemes. In the 1960s, the first major attempt was made through the Rural Manpower Programme and Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Projects (PIREP), designed to provide supplementary employment during lean agricultural seasons. These schemes were limited in coverage but marked the beginning of linking wage employment with rural infrastructure creation. The Food for Work Programme was also launched in the early 1970s, wherein surplus food grains from the government buffer stock were distributed as wages to labourers engaged in community works like road construction, water conservation, and soil management. This approach addressed both rural unemployment and food insecurity simultaneously, though it faced issues of logistical inefficiency and poor targeting. The drought of the early 1970s highlighted the vulnerability of rural households, leading to the introduction of the Crash Scheme for Rural Employment (CSRE) in 1971. This programme sought to create immediate employment for the rural poor, especially in drought-prone regions, by investing in ________ ________ _________ ___ __________ ___ _____ _______.
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