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The growth and development of higher education have been closely associated with the social, economic, and political transformation of societies across the world. Higher education has gradually evolved from a limited and elite system serving a small section of society to a broad and diversified system intended to support national development, knowledge creation, and human resource development. In India, the expansion of higher education has been influenced by historical developments, policy initiatives, demographic pressures, technological changes, and the growing demand for skilled manpower. A critical review of this growth reveals both significant achievements and serious challenges that must be considered while planning the future of higher education. Historically, higher education in India has its roots in ancient centers of learning such as Nalanda, Takshashila, and Vikramashila, which attracted scholars from different parts of the world. These institutions provided advanced knowledge in philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and literature. During the medieval period, educational institutions such as madrasas and pathshalas continued the tradition of higher learning, although access remained limited. The modern system of higher education was introduced during the colonial period when universities were established in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in 1857. These universities followed the British model and focused mainly ______ _______ __________ ___ ____.
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