Explain the role of nucleotides as energy carriers, components of coenzymes, and second messengers in cells.

Describe the structure of DNA according to the Watson-Crick model and outline the major types of RNA.

Classify vitamins into water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins and describe their active forms.

 Describe the role of lipids as signaling molecules, cofactors, and pigments.

Explain how membrane lipid composition influences membrane fluidity and cellular function.

Classify lipids and describe the structure of fatty acids and triacylglycerols.

 Describe the biochemical basis of blood group antigens and their importance in blood transfusion.

Classify polysaccharides and describe the structure of storage and structural polysaccharides.

Discuss the role of oligosaccharides in cell recognition and molecular signaling.

Explain glycosidic bond formation and differentiate between reducing and non-reducing disaccharides.

Explain the biological significance of mutarotation, anomers, epimers, and enantiomers.

Describe the structure and classification of monosaccharides, including aldoses and ketoses.

Explain how alterations in protein secondary or tertiary structure can lead to loss of biological activity.

Describe peptide bond formation and the levels of protein structure.

Explain how the physical and chemical properties of amino acids influence protein structure and function

Describe the general structure of a-amino acids and classify them based on their side chains.

Using the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, explain how buffers maintain physiological pH in biological systems.

Explain the unique properties of water and the role of non-covalent interactions in aqueous systems.

 Explain how knowledge of chemical elements and units of measurement is essential for quantitative analysis in biochemical experiments.

 Describe the origin of biochemistry and explain why it is considered an interdisciplinary discipline.