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Buffers are chemical systems that resist changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. In biological systems, maintaining physiological pH is essential because enzyme activity, protein structure, and metabolic reactions are highly sensitive to hydrogen ion concentration. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation provides a quantitative way to understand how buffers function. The equation is expressed as pH = pKa + log ([A⁻]/[HA]), where pKa is the acid dissociation constant, [A⁻] _____ ________ __________ ________ ________ _____ _______ __________ ________.
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