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Classical electrodynamics is founded on Maxwell’s equations, which provide a complete macroscopic description of electric and magnetic fields and their sources. In differential form, Gauss’s law for electricity states that the divergence of the electric field equals the volume charge density divided by the permittivity of free space, ∇·E = ρ/ε₀. This expresses the local relation between electric fields and charges. In integral form, the same law states that the total electric flux through any closed surface equals the enclosed charge divided by ε₀, ∮ E·dA = Q_encl/ε₀, emphasizing the global flux–charge relationship. Gauss’s law for magnetism reflects the nonexistence of magnetic monopoles. In differential form _______ __________ _____ ________ ______ __________ __________ _________ _______ ________.
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