Question

What is controlling? Enumerate the tools and techniques of controlling.

17 Aug 2022
Answer :
Word Count : 8800

Controlling is one of the important functions of a manager. In order to seek planned results from the subordinates, a manager needs to exercise effective control over the activities of the subordinates. In other words, the meaning of controlling function can be defined as ensuring that activities in an organization are performed as per the plans. Controlling also ensures that an organization’s resources are being used effectively & efficiently for the achievement of predetermined goals.

  • Controlling is a goal-oriented function.
  • It is a primary function of every manager.
  • Controlling the function of a manager is a pervasive function.

Techniques and Tools of Controlling:

Planning and controlling are now treated as an integrated system. This is quite apparent in management control techni­ques such as budgeting, break-even analysis, linear program­ming, and net-work analysis like PERT/CPM.

In a sense plans, policies, procedures and objectives may be considered as feed-forward controls and the combined planning /controlling techniques establish the goals, parameters, and con­straints for the control of ongoing operations.

Management control is a systematic effort to set perfor­mance standards with planning objectives, to design informa­tion feedback systems, to compare actual performance with these pre-determined standards, to determine whether there are any deviations, and to take any action required to assure that all corporate resources are being used in the most effective and efficient way possible in achieving corporate objectives.

Broadly speaking, we have two categories of management controls:

i. Budgetary controls, and

ii. Non-budgetary con­trols, including all techniques of operations research, i.e., quan­titative control techniques.

1. Budgetary Control:

Budget:

A budget is a recorded plan of action expressed in quanti­tative terms. It is a statement of anticipated results either is financial terms, e.g. cash or capital budget, or even in non-financial terms, e.g., budgets of materials, physical sales volume or units of production. As a recorded plan of action, it is; quantitative statement relating to a certain future period, ii order to attain the given objectives in that period.

The process of preparing a budget is planning and the budget itself is the end point of the planning process, i.e., the resultant plan. However, the budget is the most widely used control device as the planned targets of the budget, are the standards against which actual performance is compared and controlled.

A budget prepared to act as a means of controlling operations. For each unit, we have a separate budget usually for a year. Each budget is expressed in financial terms, as it helps to compare and cc ordinate all operations of the enterprise.

Budgets perform three functions:

(1) They present the objectives, plans and programmes of the organisation and express them in financial terms;

(2) They report the progress of actual performance against these pre-determined objectives plans and programmes;

(3) Like organisation charts, delegator of authority, procedures and job descriptions, they define the assignments, which have flowed down from the chief executive.

Budget while performing the first function acts as the instru­ment of planning. While performing the second function, it acts as the means of control. While performing the third function, it merely performing the function of defining assign­ments. Here, we are interested in the second function, viz., and the means of control-reporting progress of actual performance against the programme.

Budgetary Control:

A budget is one of the most important overall control devices used by modern management. Budgets are essentially plans of action. But their use in financially controlling the enterprise is so great that they have come to be regarded as the media of control. The term “budgeting” points out con­trolling based on a budget. Thus a budget serves as a planning- controlling mechanism.

Of course, a budget, like planning, comes first and budgeting like controlling follows the budget in the cycle of planning-controlling mechanism (controls are the re­verse side of the coin of planning).

Budgetary control naturally involves preparation of budgets and later comparison of actual with planned expenditure or comparison of actual performance with the budget and taking corrective actions, if necessary, to remove the shortfall or deficiency. Many companies refer to their budgetary controls as either profit plans or profit paths.

Budgetary control gives due recognition to the importance of managerial functions of planning and control. Plans are described in financial terms. Then the actual performances are compared with the plans (Budgets) and control is exercised to achieve the planned performance.

Budgetary control also enables management to co-ordinate all management functions. For instance, we can co-ordinate sales and production func­tions so that what is produced is sold at the planned price and what is to be sold is duly produced in the required quality and quantity at the right cost and at the right time.

In recent times, the technique of budgetary control has made great contributions in the Western countries to ensure the effectiveness of operations of a business enterprise. Multi­national corporations having numerous subsidiaries all over the world cannot manage their affairs effectively without a comprehensive budgetary control system.

At present a budget is regarded as a profit plan and budgeting is considered as profit planning. Programme Planning and Budgeting (PPB) is a modified concept of budgeting and it concentrates more on goals and programmes in the light of available resources. Costs are assessed against benefits in selecting the best course towards accomplishing a programme goal.

Budgeting Techniques

The technique of budgeting itself has undergone radical changes in the recent past. Earlier, budgets operated on a mechanistic accounting concept of departmentalisation of finan­cial expenses. Modern budgeting acts as a positive tool for total management planning and control, the process in which the entire organisation actively participates.

Bottom-Up Approach:

Budgets are not fixed by the top management and then formally ‘given’ to the heads of depart­ments. Today, the budget preparation starts with the smallest unit of the organisation. Such sectional budgets are progres­sively aggregated to finally arrive at the overall corporate budget.

Stress on Non-financial Indicators:

Another distinctive fea­ture of the modern budgeting is the importance given to non- financial indicators as well. Early budgeting in its zeal for financial aggregations overlooked such non-financial indica­tors, e.g. market share, capacity utilisation, labour efficiency, etc. Today most budgets duly recognise the importance of these physical indicators at the operational level.

The budgetary control system cannot be standardised and made uniform for all business. No two enterprises operate in the same way with similar resources in identical or similar environments. Even for two companies in the same industry, the financial resources, the age of plant, or the managerial competence may be entirely different.

And budgeting must take these distinctions into account if it is to be effective. The success of each company depends on a particular factor, which may be different from that for other companies. Budgeting, to be effective, must recognise the importance of the key success variable (also sometimes called the Budget Key Factor).

In case of some companies the key success variable may be their marketing skills, while in some other case it may be produc­tion efficiencies, or excellence in purchasing, or an advantageous location.

Three Approaches in Budget Preparation:

The Competitive Approach:

Each unit or department is asked to submit its projection for the ensuing year regarding the operating expenses and capital expenditures to the top management or the central budgeting group or committee. The budget committee reviews the demands and returns a fixed Rupee amount to each unit.

The budget committee cannot judge the demands accurately on their merits. It compares projected figures with past expenditures. During inflation it will try to hold the line as near as possible and during recession it will try to reduce the budget items by a certain percentage, say 20 per cent across all units.

Anticipating this behaviour, all units try to pad their demands and inflate their budgets intentionally to cover contingencies or build a higher base for future periods.

The Hard-Line-Soft-Practice Approach:

A firm line is adopted in the initial allocation. Certain reserves are created. But deserving cases or requests are met duly during the budget­ed period. Under this procedure loudly protesting units or favoured units get the required funds. Similarly, co-operative groups can be rewarded with additional allocations while quar­relling units are denied such privileges.

The Multiple-Level-Contingency Approach:

Each unit is asked to prepare its budget with upper and lower limits for each major item rather than demanding absolute amount. In a budget meeting unit manager presents his forecast. The supe­rior will consider factors pushing expenditures towards the upper or lower limits. Then the superior aggregates the budget for his entire group and carries this forward to the next level for approval.

The first approach represents traditional autocratic mana­gerial style. The second approach is a combination of auto­cratic and human relations managerial style. The third approach reflects human resources model. It stresses joint planning process in budgeting. The unit can set a high stan­dard. It gets the freedom to fail. Unpredictable contingencies are duly recognised.

Organization Structure and Budgetary Control:

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