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The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), adopted as part of the World Trade Organization framework in 1994, significantly expanded and harmonized the scope of copyright protection across member states by establishing minimum standards that countries must implement in their domestic laws. Prior to TRIPS, international copyright protection was primarily governed by conventions such as the Berne Convention, which, although comprehensive, lacked strong enforcement mechanisms and uniform compliance. TRIPS not only incorporates key principles of the Berne Convention but also strengthens and broadens copyright protection by introducing new dimensions, especially in response to technological advancements and globalization. One of the primary ways in which TRIPS expanded the scope of copyright is by explicitly incorporating most provisions of the Berne Convention (1971), with the exception of moral rights under Article 6bis. This incorporation ensures that fundamental principles such as national treatment, automatic protection, and minimum standards of protection are binding on all WTO members. By making these principles enforceable through the WTO dispute settlement mechanism, TRIPS elevated copyright protection from a largely aspirational framework to one with real legal consequences for non-compliance. TRIPS also clarified and extended the categories of works eligible for copyright protection. It explicitly recognizes computer programs as literary works, thereby granting them the same level of protection as traditional literary creations. This was a significant development in the digital age, as it ensured that software _______ ______ __________ _________ ______ ______.
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