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Indirect rule in China refers to the system of foreign domination in which Western powers exercised control over China without formally establishing complete colonial rule. Unlike many Asian and African regions that became direct colonies of European powers, China maintained its territorial sovereignty and imperial government, but foreign nations gradually acquired extensive political, economic, and military privileges. This system emerged particularly during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and became an important feature of European imperialism in modern China. The foundation of indirect rule in China was laid after China’s defeat in the First Opium War (1839–1842) against Britain. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) forced China to open several ports for foreign ___ _____ _______ ____ ____ ____ __________.
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