In what ways did the colonial Indian cities embody the visible signs and symbols of modernity?

For some 19th century observers like Friedrich Engels and Alexis de Tocqueville, the ‘shock cities’ of Britain’s first industrial revolution symbolised the emergence of a modern economic order geared to the capitalist market and its attendant social consequences: the separation of the home and the workplace, the segregation of classes and the abysmal living conditions of the poor. By the turn of the twentieth century, there emerged other kinds of association between modernity and the city. The spectacular capital cities of Western Europe such as London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna and Stockholm and New York in the USA – stood forth as symbols of urban modernity. Many of these cities were reconstructed (e.g. ‘Paris’, with urban space recreated ‘as a visual spectacle, opening up the monumental vista while simultaneously rendering the city a site of consumption, of window-shopping, promenading and surveillance. Urban modernity was, however, not merely reflected in the built form of the city or its governance. The city also became a site for novel forms of urban interaction and sociability made possible by the emergence and consolidation of a new domain mediating between state and society: what is broadly referred to as the _________ ______ ____ ___ _________ _________ _________ ____ __________ _________ ___ _______.
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