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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was the result of a deep-rooted crisis in France that had developed over decades and came to a head in the late eighteenth century. It was not a sudden upheaval caused by a single event but rather the culmination of widespread economic distress, persistent social inequalities, and an entrenched political system that resisted change. Together, these factors generated a climate of discontent among different classes of French society, ultimately leading to the outbreak of revolution that would transform not only France but also modern Europe. The economic crisis played a central role in preparing the ground for revolution. By the mid-eighteenth century, France was burdened with an unsustainable fiscal situation. The monarchy, under Louis XV and later Louis XVI, had engaged in continuous wars, including the costly Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) and France’s active participation in the American War of Independence (1775–1783). These wars drained the royal treasury, leaving France with an immense public debt. The monarchy attempted to raise revenue primarily through taxation, but the burden fell disproportionately on the lower classes while the nobility and clergy enjoyed exemptions. Attempts at reform by finance ministers such as Turgot, Necker, and Calonne failed because the privileged estates resisted any reduction of their fiscal privileges. Thus, while the state’s income stagnated, expenditure soared, creating an untenable fiscal crisis that directly contributed to the calling of the Estates-General in 1789, the immediate precursor to the Revolution. The economic hardship was _________ _________ ______ ______ _________.
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