Explain the various sources of teratogens and their effects. Describe the process of teratogenesis and the mechanism of action.

Teratogens are substances or agents that can cause congenital abnormalities or malformations in a developing embryo or fetus. These agents disrupt normal fetal development, leading to birth defects or developmental delays. Teratogens can be chemical, physical, or biological in nature, and their effects depend on the timing, dose, and duration of exposure during pregnancy. Understanding the sources of teratogens and their effects is critical in environmental toxicology, where researchers seek to prevent or mitigate harmful exposures.

Sources of Teratogens:

1. Chemical Teratogens: These include drugs, environmental pollutants, and industrial chemicals that are capable of causing developmental harm. Common chemical teratogens include:

   • Pharmaceutical drugs: Certain medications, such as thalidomide, have been notorious for causing birth defects. Thalidomide, once prescribed for morning sickness, led to severe limb malformations when taken during pregnancy.
   • Pesticides and herbicides: Chemicals like organophosphates and DDT have been shown to affect fetal development, particularly in terms of neurological damage and developmental delay.
   • Heavy metals: Exposure to lead, mercury, or arsenic during _________ _______ _______ ______ ________ ________ ________ _______ ________ ____ ________ ______.
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