Explain the phenomena of linkage and crossing over. Add a note on recombination frequency as a measure to distance between genes.

Linkage refers to the phenomenon where genes that are located close to each other on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together during meiosis. This is because such genes are physically linked on the chromosome and are less likely to be separated by the process of recombination, which occurs during the formation of gametes. Linkage challenges Mendel’s law of independent assortment, which states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. While this law holds true for genes located on different chromosomes, genes on the same chromosome can exhibit linkage and be inherited together more frequently.

Crossing Over is the process by which homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material during prophase I of meiosis. This exchange occurs at points called chiasmata, _________ _________ _________ ______ _____ _______ ______ ____ ______ _________.
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