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Radiation measurement is a critical component of environmental chemistry, particularly in the assessment of radioactive contamination, monitoring nuclear facilities, and evaluating natural and anthropogenic radiation in the environment. Accurate detection and quantification of radiation are essential for ensuring safety, compliance with regulatory limits, and understanding the environmental impact of radioactive materials. Various instruments have been developed to measure different types of radiation, including alpha, beta, gamma, and neutron radiation, each with its specific principle of operation and applications. One of the most widely used instruments is the Geiger-Müller (GM) counter, which operates on the principle of ionization. It consists of a gas-filled tube with electrodes and a high-voltage source. When radiation passes through the tube, it ionizes the gas, creating an electrical pulse that is counted by the instrument. GM counters are particularly useful for detecting beta and gamma radiation and are extensively employed in field surveys, monitoring contamination, and checking radiation levels in laboratories. Their portability, simplicity, and quick response make them suitable for routine environmental monitoring, though they have limited energy resolution __________ _________ _________ ________ _______ ________ _________ _____.
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