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Data independence and data abstraction are two fundamental concepts in Database Management Systems (DBMS) that help manage the complexity of databases and make database applications easier to develop, maintain, and modify. A DBMS separates the way data is physically stored from the way users and applications access it. This separation allows changes to one level of a database system to be made without unnecessarily affecting other levels. Data independence mainly deals with the ability to change the database schema at one level without changing the schema at the next higher level, while data abstraction deals with hiding unnecessary details of data storage and presenting users with only the information they need. Data independence refers to the ability of a database system to modify the schema at one level of the database architecture without requiring changes at the next higher level. It is an important feature of the three-level architecture proposed by the ANSI/SPARC model. The three levels are the internal level, conceptual level, and external level. The internal level describes how data is physically stored. The conceptual level describes the overall logical structure of the database, including entities, relationships, and constraints. The external level describes different user views of the database. There are two major types of data independence: physical data independence and logical data independence. Physical data independence is the ability to change the internal or physical schema without changing the conceptual schema or application programs. Physical storage details may change for reasons of performance, efficiency, or technological development. For example, a database administrator may change the file organisation, create or remove indexes, change storage devices, modify partitioning methods, or alter data compression techniques. These changes should not require modifications to the logical structure of the database or the programs that use it. For instance, suppose a student database initially stores records using one type of file ______ _________ ____ ______ ___ _______ ____ ___ ____.
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