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In metaphysics, the concept of substance has been central to philosophical inquiry for centuries, tracing back to the works of Aristotle, Descartes, Spinoza, and many modern thinkers. Substance is generally understood as that which exists independently and serves as the fundamental reality underlying all phenomena. It is what underpins the properties and changes of objects, providing a stable, enduring entity in contrast to the transitory nature of appearances. In other words, substance is the “what” that remains when all accidental or changeable characteristics are stripped away. Philosophers have often debated whether substance is material, immaterial, or both, and how it relates to properties, causation, and existence itself. Aristotle provides one of the earliest systematic treatments of substance. According to him, substance, or *ousia*, is that which exists in itself and not in another. He distinguishes substance from accidents, which are the attributes or properties that a substance may have but which do not exist independently. For instance, the redness of a rose is an accident, but the rose itself, as an independent entity, is a substance. Aristotle further categorizes substances into primary and secondary: primary substances are individual entities, such as a particular tree or person, while secondary substances are the species or genera to which these individuals belong, such as “tree” or “human.” For Aristotle, substances are essential for understanding the nature of reality because they are the bearers of properties and the subjects of predication. He ___ __________ ____ _____ _________ ____ ____.
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