Examine the emergence of new forms of knowledge and their relationship to the city that has set the modern city distinct from their pre-modern predecessors.

The emergence of new forms of knowledge and their relationship to the city is another aspect that has set the modern city apart from its pre-modern predecessor. The urban plan has been a particularly significant object of study in modern cities. Modern urban plans were associated with new forms of knowledge which claimed to be based on objective truth. In this Section, we will consider one of these – public health – but there were many others, such as cartography, engineering, demography and economics, which had their respective experts, and were considered crucial to the operation of the modern city. Modern plans are all encompassing, in trying to structure urban space as a whole, ranging from large public thoroughfares to individual houses. Yet, older city plans, which were envisaged in order to build an ideal society, were never completely abandoned, but were integrated in the forms taken by planning. The planning of the modern city is often epitomised by the transformations of Paris after the 1850s, and the efforts of Baron Georges Haussmann (Harvey, 2003). Appointed by Napoleon III in 1853, he famously demolished large parts of the old city in order to create a new Paris of wide boulevards and underground sewers. There is some dispute about whether his efforts should unequivocally be considered as either new, or as a distinct way of reconfiguring the ‘modern’ city (see Harvey, 2003). For instance, Matthew Gandy, looking at the sewers constructed under Haussmann, suggests that they served fundamentally aesthetic, rather than functional uses, since the architecture was decidedly non-modern in orientation (Gandy, 1999). Nevertheless, many of Haussmann’s methods and their outcomes have provided a model of modern urban government – not only to those leaders of new nation-states building cities, but also planners envisioning them and historians describing ___ _______ ___ ________ __________ ___ _________ ___ _________ ________.
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