Discuss the role of phase transfer catalysts in nucleophilic substitution reactions.

Phase transfer catalysts (PTCs) play a crucial role in nucleophilic substitution reactions, particularly when the nucleophile and the substrate are present in different phases. These reactions are often conducted in heterogeneous systems, such as when the nucleophile is in an aqueous phase, and the substrate is in an organic solvent. The phase transfer catalyst facilitates the transfer of the nucleophile from the __________ _______ ________ __________ __________ ________.
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