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The rapid expansion of cyberspace has transformed the nature of human interaction, commerce, governance, and crime. With computers and digital networks becoming integral to everyday life, traditional legal frameworks have faced significant challenges in addressing wrongful acts committed in cyberspace. In this context, scholars and lawmakers distinguish between “technology based” and “technology neutral” wrongs to better understand and regulate computer-related misconduct. These concepts help clarify whether a wrongful act exists solely because of technology or whether technology merely provides a new medium for an already recognized offence. Technology based wrongs are those offences that owe their very existence to computer technology and digital networks. Such wrongs could not have been committed in the absence of computers, the internet, or related digital systems. The harm arises directly from the misuse of technological features, such as software, hardware, networks, or data structures. Unauthorized access to computer systems, commonly referred to as hacking, is a classic example of a technology based wrong. Before the advent of computers, the idea of illegally entering a digital system to manipulate or extract data had no practical meaning. Similarly, the creation and dissemination of computer viruses, worms, and malware constitute technology based wrongs because they exploit technical vulnerabilities in computer systems to cause damage, disrupt operations, or __________ ____ ____ _________ _________ ___ __________ _____ _____ _______ ______.
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