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The Tokugawa period (1603–1868), also known as the Edo period, witnessed the establishment of a stable political order under the Tokugawa Shogunate. The economy during this period was predominantly agrarian, but it also experienced remarkable commercial growth, urbanization, and the development of a market-oriented economy. The long period of peace and political stability created favorable conditions for economic expansion and laid the foundation for Japan's rapid modernization during the Meiji era. Agriculture formed the backbone of the Tokugawa economy. Rice was the principal crop and served not only as food but also as the standard measure of wealth and taxation. The productivity of agriculture increased through land reclamation, irrigation projects, improved farming techniques, and the cultivation of commercial crops such as cotton, tea, sugar, tobacco, and indigo. Village communities played a vital role in agricultural production, while peasants bore a heavy tax burden, generally ______ _______ _________ __________ ________.
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