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Carbohydrate metabolism is tightly regulated by a coordinated interplay of hormones that maintain blood glucose homeostasis within a narrow physiological range. The primary site of regulation is the liver, along with skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, where processes such as glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, glycolysis, and gluconeogenesis are dynamically controlled according to the body’s energy needs. Among all hormones, insulin and glucagon play the central antagonistic roles, while epinephrine, cortisol, growth hormone, and thyroid hormones provide additional layers of regulation during stress, fasting, and varying metabolic demands. Insulin, secreted by the β-cells of the pancreas in response to elevated blood glucose levels, is the principal anabolic hormone in carbohydrate metabolism. It promotes glucose uptake in insulin-sensitive tissues such as skeletal muscle and adipose tissue by facilitating the translocation of GLUT4 transporters to the cell membrane. In _______ ______ _________ ______ __________ ____ ___.
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