Contextualise the water and territorial disputes in relation to federalism in India.

Water and territorial disputes in India have been a persistent issue, deeply intertwined with the country's federal structure. These disputes involve disagreements between states or between states and the central government over the allocation of water resources or territorial boundaries. Federalism in India, as enshrined in the Constitution, allows for the distribution of powers and responsibilities between the central government and the states. However, the resolution of water and territorial disputes often highlights the challenges inherent in federalism, including issues of power asymmetry, regional autonomy, inter-state relations, and the role of the judiciary.

### Water Disputes and Federalism in India

Water is a critical resource in India, where agriculture remains the backbone of the economy, and the demand for water far exceeds the available supply. India’s rivers often traverse multiple states, and the sharing of water from these rivers has led to several conflicts, as different states have competing demands for the same resource. The complexity of water disputes is accentuated by the federal structure, as water distribution is both a state and central issue, often requiring intervention from both levels of government.

Under the Constitution of India, water is primarily a state subject, listed under the Union List in the Seventh Schedule. However, rivers that cross state boundaries fall under the jurisdiction of the central government. This dual jurisdiction creates complications in resolving water disputes, especially when states claim that their legitimate rights to water are being curtailed or violated.

One prominent example is the dispute over the sharing of water from the *Kaveri River* between the states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The *Kaveri Water Disputes Tribunal*, established in 1990 by the central government, tried to adjudicate this issue, but the matter continues to be a source of tension, despite the tribunal’s ruling. Similar water conflicts exist over the *Mahanadi*, *Krishna*, and *Narmada* rivers, with states like Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh frequently involved in disputes regarding equitable water sharing.

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