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Climate change represents one of the most pressing global challenges of the twenty-first century, affecting every dimension of human and natural systems. Its pervasive and multidimensional impacts complicate the assessment of vulnerability across different sectors, making it difficult to predict, plan for, and mitigate the consequences. Vulnerability assessment involves identifying the degree to which a system is susceptible to or unable to cope with adverse effects of climate change, including variability and extremes. However, the increasing frequency and intensity of climate-related events, the interlinkages between environmental and social systems, and the uncertainties inherent in climate projections make vulnerability assessment an evolving and complex process. These challenges manifest distinctively across sectors such as human health, infrastructure, agriculture, and biodiversity, where exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity vary significantly. In the domain of human health, climate change intensifies existing vulnerabilities while creating new ones. Rising global temperatures increase the incidence of heat-related illnesses, especially among the elderly, children, and those with pre-existing medical conditions. Assessing vulnerability in this context is challenging because health outcomes depend on multiple interacting factors—climatic, social, economic, and institutional. For instance, heatwaves affect populations differently depending on access to healthcare, housing quality, and public awareness. Moreover, the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria, dengue, and Zika is influenced by changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, yet also by human mobility, sanitation infrastructure, and vector control programs. This makes isolating climate-driven effects from non-climatic ones difficult. Vulnerability assessments must therefore integrate epidemiological data with climate models and socio-economic variables, but data scarcity, especially in low-income countries, limits precision. Furthermore, mental health impacts of climate-related disasters—such as anxiety, trauma, and depression—are often _________ ________ _________ ________ _____ _________.
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