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Working equines, including horses, donkeys, and mules, play a vital role in agriculture, transport, tourism, construction, and rural livelihoods across many countries. Their welfare directly influences their health, productivity, longevity, and the economic well-being of the communities that depend on them. Critical minimum standards of care are based on internationally accepted animal welfare principles, including the Five Freedoms and the Five Domains Model, which emphasize nutrition, health, comfort, behavior, and mental well-being. Adequate nutrition is the foremost requirement for working equines. Animals should have continuous access to clean drinking water and a balanced diet containing sufficient energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals to match their workload. Feeding schedules should consider the intensity and duration of work, seasonal changes, and physiological conditions such as pregnancy, lactation, or old age. Poor nutrition results in weight loss, fatigue, weakened immunity, and reduced work efficiency. Suitable housing and shelter are equally important. Working equines require safe, clean, dry, and well-ventilated shelters that protect them from extreme heat, cold, rain, and insects. Flooring should minimize slipping and hoof injuries, while resting areas should be comfortable enough to prevent sores and musculoskeletal stress. Proper sanitation reduces the risk of infectious _______ _________ ________ __________ ___ ______ __________ ______ _________.
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